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Academic establishment for farther didactics

A university (from Latin universitas 'a whole') is an institution of college (or tertiary) teaching and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs in dissimilar schools or faculties of learning.

The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means "community of teachers and scholars".^[ane]

The first universities were created in Europe by Catholic Church building monks.^{[2] [iii] [4] [5] [vi]} The University of Bologna (Università di Bologna), founded in 1088, is the showtime academy in the sense of:

• Existence a loftier caste-awarding establish.
• Having independence from the ecclesiastic schools, although conducted past both clergy and non-clergy.
• Using the word universitas (which was coined at its foundation).
• Issuing secular and non-secular degrees: grammar, rhetoric, logic, theology, canon law, notarial law.^{[7] [8] [9] [x] [11]}

History [edit]

Definition [edit]

The original Latin word universitas refers in full general to "a number of persons associated into one torso, a social club, company, customs, guild, corporation, etc".^[12] At the fourth dimension of the emergence of urban town life and medieval guilds, specialized "associations of students and teachers with collective legal rights usually guaranteed by charters issued past princes, prelates, or the towns in which they were located" came to exist denominated by this general term. Like other guilds, they were cocky-regulating and adamant the qualifications of their members.^[13]

In modern usage the word has come up to hateful "An establishment of higher education offer tuition in mainly non-vocational subjects and typically having the power to confer degrees,"^[14] with the earlier emphasis on its corporate organization considered as applying historically to Medieval universities.^[15]

The original Latin give-and-take referred to degree-awarding institutions of learning in Western and Central Europe, where this class of legal arrangement was prevalent and from where the establishment spread around the world.^{[ citation needed ]}

Academic freedom [edit]

An important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of bookish freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the University of Bologna, which adopted an bookish charter, the Constitutio Habita,^[sixteen] in 1158 or 1155,^[17] which guaranteed the correct of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of didactics. Today this is claimed equally the origin of "academic freedom".^[18] This is at present widely recognised internationally - on xviii September 1988, 430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum,^[19] marking the 900th ceremony of Bologna'south foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, cartoon from all parts of the world.

Antecedents [edit]

Moroccan college-learning institution Al-Qarawiyin (founded in 859 A.D.) was transformed into a university under the supervision of the ministry building of teaching in 1963.^[20]

Scholars occasionally call the University of al-Qarawiyyin (name given in 1963), founded as a mosque past Fatima al-Fihri in 859, a university,^{[21] [22] [23] [24]} although Jacques Verger writes that this is done out of scholarly convenience.^[25] Several scholars consider that al-Qarawiyyin was founded^{[26] [27]} and run^{[20] [28] [29] [30] [31]} as a madrasa until after World War II. They appointment the transformation of the madrasa of al-Qarawiyyin into a academy to its modern reorganization in 1963.^{[32] [33] [20]} In the wake of these reforms, al-Qarawiyyin was officially renamed "University of Al Quaraouiyine" two years subsequently.^[32]

Some scholars argue that Al-Azhar University, founded in 970-972 Advertizing and located in Cairo, Arab republic of egypt, is the oldest caste-granting university in the world and the second oldest university in the world.^[34]

Some scholars, including George Makdisi, take argued that early medieval universities were influenced by the madrasas in Al-Andalus, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle Eastward during the Crusades.^{[35] [36] [37]} Norman Daniel, however, views this argument every bit overstated.^[38] Roy Lowe and Yoshihito Yasuhara take recently drawn on the well-documented influences of scholarship from the Islamic globe on the universities of Western Europe to call for a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning abroad from a business organisation with local institutional structures to a broader consideration within a global context.^[39]

Medieval Europe [edit]

The modern academy is generally regarded every bit a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian tradition.^{[twoscore] [41]}

European higher education took identify for hundreds of years in cathedral schools or monastic schools (scholae monasticae), in which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the afterward university at many places dates back to the sixth century.^[42]

In Europe, immature men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic or logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.

The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull equally studia generalia and perhaps from cathedral schools. It is possible, notwithstanding, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris beingness an exception.^[43] Subsequently they were besides founded by Kings (Academy of Naples Federico II, Charles University in Prague, Jagiellonian University in Kraków) or municipal administrations (University of Cologne, Academy of Erfurt). In the early medieval menses, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were accounted to have become primarily sites of college education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by The residence of a religious customs.^[44] Pope Gregory Vii was disquisitional in promoting and regulating the concept of modern university as his 1079 Papal Decree ordered the regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into the first European universities.^[45]

The starting time universities in Europe with a class of corporate/guild structure were the Academy of Bologna (1088), the Academy of Paris (c.1150, afterward associated with the Sorbonne), and the University of Oxford (1167).

The University of Bologna began as a police force school teaching the ius gentium or Roman law of peoples which was in demand across Europe for those defending the right of incipient nations against empire and church building. Bologna's special claim to Alma Mater Studiorum ^{[ clarification needed ]} is based on its autonomy, its awarding of degrees, and other structural arrangements, making it the oldest continuously operating establishment^[17] independent of kings, emperors or any kind of directly religious authority.^{[46] [47]}

The conventional appointment of 1088, or 1087 co-ordinate to some,^[48] records when Irnerius commences pedagogy Emperor Justinian'southward 6th-century codification of Roman police, the Corpus Iuris Civilis, recently discovered at Pisa. Lay students arrived in the city from many lands inbound into a contract to proceeds this noesis, organising themselves into 'Nationes', divided between that of the Cismontanes and that of the Ultramontanes. The students "had all the power … and dominated the masters".^{[49] [l]}

All over Europe rulers and city governments began to create universities to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge, and the belief that guild would do good from the scholarly expertise generated from these institutions. Princes and leaders of metropolis governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and attain desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to this agreement of the possible utility of universities besides as the revival of involvement in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts.^[51]

The recovery of Aristotle'south works–more than than 3000 pages of it would somewhen be translated–fuelled a spirit of enquiry into natural processes that had already begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these works represented i of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history.^[52] Richard Dales, for example, calls the discovery of Aristotle's works "a turning point in the history of Western thought."^[53] After Aristotle re-emerged, a community of scholars, primarily communicating in Latin, accelerated the procedure and practise of attempting to reconcile the thoughts of Greek antiquity, and peculiarly ideas related to understanding the natural world, with those of the church. The efforts of this "scholasticism" were focused on applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts about natural processes to biblical passages and attempting to prove the viability of those passages through reason. This became the principal mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students.

The academy culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, although the northern (primarily Germany, French republic and Uk) and southern universities (primarily Italy) did have many elements in common. Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics; while Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna were used for medicine. Outside of these commonalities, neat differences separated northward and south, primarily in subject matter. Italian universities focused on law and medicine, while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology. There were distinct differences in the quality of instruction in these areas which were coinciding with their focus, so scholars would travel due north or southward based on their interests and ways. At that place was also a difference in the types of degrees awarded at these universities. English language, French and German universities usually awarded bachelor's degrees, with the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more common. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates. The distinction can be attributed to the intent of the degree holder after graduation – in the north the focus tended to be on acquiring teaching positions, while in the s students often went on to professional person positions.^[54] The structure of northern universities tended to exist modeled afterwards the organization of faculty governance developed at the University of Paris. Southern universities tended to be patterned after the student-controlled model begun at the University of Bologna.^[55] Amongst the southern universities, a further distinction has been noted betwixt those of northern Italy, which followed the pattern of Bologna as a "self-regulating, contained corporation of scholars" and those of southern Italy and Iberia, which were "founded by royal and majestic charter to serve the needs of government."^[56]

Early modern universities [edit]

The University of St Andrews, founded in 1410, is Scotland'southward oldest university and 1 of the Britain's best ranked universities.^{[57] [58]}

During the Early Modernistic period (approximately late 15th century to 1800), the universities of Europe would run into a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Middle Ages, almost 400 years after the first European academy was founded, at that place were twenty-9 universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, twenty-eight new ones were created, with another eighteen added between 1500 and 1625.^[59] This footstep continued until by the finish of the 18th century there were approximately 143 universities in Europe, with the highest concentrations in the German Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Kingdom of spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the stop of the Middle Ages. This number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time.^[60] The identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during the Early Modernistic catamenia, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "university" was non always used to designate a higher education establishment. In Mediterranean countries, the term studium generale was still often used, while "University" was common in Northern European countries.^[61]

The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as the 17th century was rife with events that adversely afflicted university expansion. Many wars, and especially the Thirty Years' State of war, disrupted the academy mural throughout Europe at unlike times. War, plague, famine, regicide, and changes in religious power and structure ofttimes adversely afflicted the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife within the universities themselves, such as student brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these institutions as well. Universities were also reluctant to give upwardly older curricula, and the continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts.^[62] This era was also affected by the rise of the nation-state. Every bit universities increasingly came under country control, or formed under the auspices of the country, the faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older student-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to move toward this structural arrangement. Control of universities all the same tended to be independent, although academy leadership was increasingly appointed by the land.^[63]

Although the structural model provided by the University of Paris, where educatee members are controlled by kinesthesia "masters", provided a standard for universities, the awarding of this model took at least three different forms. There were universities that had a system of faculties whose pedagogy addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists. There was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at University of Oxford where instruction and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. At that place were besides universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model only having a centralized organization.^[64]

Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages: natural philosophy, logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, police, grammer and rhetoric. Aristotle was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine also depended on Galen and Arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this state-of-affairs cannot be underestimated.^[65] One time humanist professors joined the academy faculty, they began to transform the study of grammar and rhetoric through the studia humanitatis. Humanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to translate and interpret classical texts, and to live honorable lives.^[66] Other scholars within the university were affected by the humanist approaches to learning and their linguistic expertise in relation to aboriginal texts, likewise as the ideology that advocated the ultimate importance of those texts.^[67] Professors of medicine such as Niccolò Leoniceno, Thomas Linacre and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective likewise as translated important ancient medical texts. The critical mindset imparted by humanism was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. For example, Andreas Vesalius was educated in a humanist fashion earlier producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus infused the Corpus Juris with a humanist perspective, while Jacques Cujas humanist writings were paramount to his reputation every bit a jurist. Philipp Melanchthon cited the works of Erasmus as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities.^[68] Galileo Galilei, who taught at the Universities of Pisa and Padua, and Martin Luther, who taught at the Academy of Wittenberg (as did Melanchthon), as well had humanist training. The chore of the humanists was to slowly permeate the university; to increment the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi and textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the humanistic ideal of science and scholarship.^[69]

Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of those texts into lodge generally, their influence was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more creative academy climate (as the notable listing of scholars above attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the human, has a directly implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is unremarkably known every bit the humanities. This disposition toward knowledge manifested in non just the translation and propagation of ancient texts, merely as well their adaptation and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the use of Galen, simply he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further enquiry.^[70] The propagation of these texts, especially inside the universities, was greatly aided by the emergence of the press printing and the beginning of the apply of the vernacular, which allowed for the printing of relatively large texts at reasonable prices.^[71]

Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may advise that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connectedness betwixt humanism and the scientific discovery may very well take begun within the confines of the academy, the connection has been commonly perceived as having been severed past the irresolute nature of science during the Scientific Revolution. Historians such as Richard South. Westfall accept argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists.^[72] This resistance to changes in science may take been a meaning factor in driving many scientists abroad from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies.^[73]

Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their education should too be the place that inhibits their research and the advancement of science. In fact, more than 80% of the European scientists betwixt 1450 and 1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were university trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts.^[74] It was the example that the academic foundations remaining from the Centre Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development. There was considerable reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective every bit a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the world. All the same, university professors still utilized some autonomy, at to the lowest degree in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For case, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction.^[75] Some other case was the brusk-lived but fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more than mechanistic approaches to scientific problems as well as demonstrated an openness to change. There are many examples which belie the commonly perceived intransigence of universities.^[76] Although universities may have been slow to have new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did accept new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported the scientific changes through providing a stable surroundings for educational activity and textile resources.^[77]

Regardless of the way the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the way that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and knowledge construction, merely also for the training of scholars within the higher didactics setting. The cosmos of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the disciplines. Instead of inbound higher teaching to become a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in the entire curriculum, in that location emerged a blazon of scholar that put scientific discipline first and viewed it as a vocation in itself. The difference between those focused on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a full general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to emerge.^[78]

The epistemological tensions betwixt scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as private scientists, associations and universities were vying for express resources. There was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded past individual benefactors and designed to provide free education to the public, or established by local governments to provide a knowledge-hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities.^[79] Fifty-fifty when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational preparation and authority for the research and conclusions, they could non compete with the resources available through private benefactors.^[80]

By the end of the early on modern period, the structure and orientation of higher teaching had changed in means that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more than mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological knowledge had for the almost part been displaced and the humanities had become a fixture, and a new openness was kickoff to take concur in the construction and broadcasting of cognition that were to become imperative for the formation of the modern state.

Mod universities [edit]

By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals and by the 19th century, the German language and the French university models had arisen. The German language, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher's liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of freedom, seminars, and laboratories in universities.^{[ citation needed ]} The French university model involved strict subject area and control over every aspect of the academy.

Until the 19th century, religion played a significant role in academy curriculum; however, the office of faith in research universities decreased during that century. By the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly attainable to the masses. In the United States, the Johns Hopkins University was the commencement to adopt the (German) research university model and pioneered the adoption of that model past almost American universities. When Johns Hopkins was founded in 1876, "nearly the unabridged kinesthesia had studied in Germany."^[81] In Britain, the move from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the inflow of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and applied science, a motion initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran, with the germination of the University of Strathclyde.^[82] The British also established universities worldwide, and higher instruction became available to the masses not but in Europe.

In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland concluded that such institutions should have 4 main "objectives essential to any properly balanced organisation: educational activity in skills; the promotion of the full general powers of the heed and then every bit to produce non mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain enquiry in balance with educational activity, since education should non exist separated from the advocacy of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a mutual civilisation and common standards of citizenship."^[83]

In the early 21st century, concerns were raised over the increasing managerialisation and standardisation of universities worldwide. Neo-liberal management models have in this sense been critiqued for creating "corporate universities (where) power is transferred from faculty to managers, economic justifications boss, and the familiar 'lesser line' eclipses pedagogical or intellectual concerns".^[84] Academics' understanding of time, pedagogical pleasure, vocation, and collegiality accept been cited equally possible ways of alleviating such problems.^[85]

National universities [edit]

A national university is by and large a academy created or run by a national state but at the same time represents a state autonomic institution which functions as a completely contained torso inside of the aforementioned state. Some national universities are closely associated with national cultural, religious or political aspirations, for instance the National University of Ireland, which formed partly from the Catholic University of Ireland which was created almost immediately and specifically in reply to the non-denominational universities which had been gear up in Ireland in 1850. In the years leading up to the Easter Ascension, and in no modest role a result of the Gaelic Romantic revivalists, the NUI collected a big amount of information on the Irish gaelic language and Irish culture.^{[ citation needed ]} Reforms in Argentina were the result of the University Revolution of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for a more equal and laic^{[ further explanation needed ]} higher educational activity organisation.

Intergovernmental universities [edit]

Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are intergovernmental. An example is the University of European Law, which offers training in European police to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University) is chartered as a university and umbrella organization dedicated to sustainable development in signatory countries, and the Un University engages in efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are of concern to the Un, its peoples and fellow member states. The European University Institute, a mail-graduate university specialized in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organization, prepare by the fellow member states of the European Spousal relationship.

Organization [edit]

Although each establishment is organized differently, nearly all universities have a board of trustees; a president, chancellor, or rector; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. Public university systems are ruled over by authorities-run college education boards^{[ commendation needed ]}. They review fiscal requests and budget proposals and so classify funds for each university in the arrangement. They also approve new programs of didactics and abolish or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the land or country. Even so, many public universities in the world take a considerable degree of fiscal, enquiry and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally accept broader independence from land policies. Yet, they may accept less independence from business corporations depending on the source of their finances.

Around the world [edit]

The funding and organization of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the academy must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students nourish university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.^[86]

Classification [edit]

The definition of a university varies widely, even within some countries. Where there is clarification, it is usually set by a government bureau. For instance:

In Commonwealth of australia, the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) is Australia's independent national regulator of the higher education sector. Students rights inside university are also protected past the Education Services for Overseas Students Human activity (ESOS).

In the The states at that place is no nationally standardized definition for the term academy, although the term has traditionally been used to designate inquiry institutions and was once reserved for doctorate-granting research institutions. Some states, such as Massachusetts, will only grant a school "university condition" if it grants at least two doctoral degrees.^[87]

In the United Kingdom, the Privy Quango is responsible for approving the use of the word university in the proper name of an institution, under the terms of the Farther and Higher Education Human action 1992.^[88]

In Republic of india, a new designation accounted universities has been created for institutions of higher education that are not universities, but work at a very high standard in a specific area of study ("An Establishment of Higher Education, other than universities, working at a very high standard in specific surface area of study, can be alleged by the Key Authorities on the advice of the University Grants Commission as an Institution 'Deemedhoped-for-academy'"). Institutions that are 'deemedhoped-for-university' enjoy the academic status and the privileges of a university.^[89] Through this provision many schools that are commercial in nature and have been established merely to exploit the need for higher education have sprung up.^[ninety]

In Canada, college generally refers to a two-yr, not-caste-granting establishment, while university connotes a four-year, degree-granting institution. Universities may exist sub-classified (as in the Macleans rankings) into large research universities with many PhD-granting programs and medical schools (for case, McGill University); "comprehensive" universities that have some PhDs only are not geared toward inquiry (such as Waterloo); and smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such as St. Francis Xavier).

In Germany, universities are institutions of higher education which have the power to confer bachelor, chief and PhD degrees. They are explicitly recognised as such by law and cannot exist founded without government approving. The term Universität (i.e. the German language term for university) is protected past constabulary and whatsoever use without official approval is a criminal offense. Most of them are public institutions, though a few private universities exist. Such universities are e'er research universities. Apart from these universities, Germany has other institutions of higher education (Hochschule, Fachhochschule). Fachhochschule means a higher didactics institution which is like to the former polytechnics in the British education system, the English language term used for these German institutions is usually 'university of applied sciences'. They can confer master's degrees but no PhDs. They are similar to the model of instruction universities with less enquiry and the research undertaken being highly applied. Hochschule can refer to diverse kinds of institutions, often specialised in a certain field (e.thou. music, fine arts, business). They might or might non have the power to award PhD degrees, depending on the respective regime legislation. If they award PhD degrees, their rank is considered equivalent to that of universities proper (Universität), if not, their rank is equivalent to universities of applied sciences.

Vernacular usage [edit]

Colloquially, the term university may be used to depict a phase in 1'southward life: "When I was at university..." (in the U.s. and Ireland, college is often used instead: "When I was in college..."). In Ireland, Commonwealth of australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, holland, Italia, Spain and the High german-speaking countries, university is often contracted to uni. In Ghana, New Zealand, Bangladesh and in South Africa information technology is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has become uncommon in New Zealand in recent years). "Varsity" was also common usage in the Britain in the 19th century.^{[ citation needed ]}

Cost [edit]

In many countries, students are required to pay tuition fees. Many students expect to get 'pupil grants' to comprehend the cost of university. In 2016, the average outstanding student loan rest per borrower in the United States was US$xxx,000.^[91] In many U.Southward. states, costs are anticipated to rise for students every bit a issue of decreased state funding given to public universities.^[92] Many universities in the United States offer students the opportunity to apply for financial scholarships to aid pay for tuition based on academic achievement.

In that location are several major exceptions on tuition fees. In many European countries, information technology is possible to written report without tuition fees. Public universities in Nordic countries were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Kingdom of denmark, Sweden and Republic of finland and so moved to put in place tuition fees for foreign students. Citizens of EU and EEA member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and the amounts of public grants granted to promising strange students were increased to beginning some of the impact.^[93] The state of affairs in Deutschland is similar; public universities usually do non accuse tuition fees apart from a small administrative fee. For degrees of a postgraduate professional level sometimes tuition fees are levied. Private universities, however, near always charge tuition fees.

See also [edit]

• Alternative university
• Alumni
• Ancient higher-learning institutions
• Catholic academy
• College and university rankings
• Corporate academy
• International university
• Land-grant university
• Liberal arts college
• List of bookish disciplines
• Lists of universities and colleges
• Pontifical university
• Enquiry university
• School and university in literature
• Science tourism
• UnCollege
• University student retention
• University system
• Urban university

References [edit]

1. ^ "Universities". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
2. ^ Den Heijer, Alexandra (2011). Managing the University Campus: Information to Support Existent Estate Decisions. Academische Uitgeverij Eburon. ISBN9789059724877. Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were built-in under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or past papal bull as Studia Generali.
3. ^ A. Lamport, Mark (2015). Encyclopedia of Christian Pedagogy. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 484. ISBN9780810884939. All the great European universities-Oxford, to Paris, to Cologne, to Prague, to Bologna—were established with close ties to the Church.
4. ^ B G. Leonard, Thomas (2013). Encyclopedia of the Developing Earth. Routledge. p. 1369. ISBN9781135205157. Europe established schools in association with their cathedrals to educate priests, and from these emerged eventually the first universities of Europe, which began forming in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
5. ^ Gavroglu, Kostas (2015). Sciences in the Universities of Europe, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Academic Landscapes. Springer. p. 302. ISBN9789401796361.
6. ^ GA. Dawson, Patricia (2015). First Peoples of the Americas and the European Age of Exploration. Cavendish Square Publishing. p. 103. ISBN9781502606853.
7. ^ "The Academy from the twelfth to the 20th century - University of Bologna". www.unibo.it. Archived from the original on five April 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
8. ^ Summit Universities Archived 17 Jan 2009 at the Wayback Machine World University Rankings Retrieved 6 January 2010
9. ^ Paul L. Gaston (2010). The Challenge of Bologna. p. eighteen. ISBN978-1-57922-366-3. Archived from the original on ten March 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
10. ^ Hunt Janin: "The academy in medieval life, 1179–1499", McFarland, 2008, ISBN 0-7864-3462-vii, p. 55f.
11. ^ de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: A History of the University in Europe: Volume ane, Universities in the Center Ages Archived 13 December 2021 at the Wayback Auto, Cambridge University Printing, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. 47–55
12. ^ Lewis, Charlton T.; Brusque, Charles (1966) [1879], A Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Printing
13. ^ Marcia Fifty. Colish, Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400-1400, (New Haven: Yale Univ. Pr., 1997), p. 267.
14. ^ "university, n.", OED Online (3rd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Printing, 2010, archived from the original on xxx April 2021, retrieved 27 Baronial 2013
15. ^ "university, n.", OED Online (third ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, archived from the original on 30 April 2021, retrieved 27 August 2013, ...In the Eye Ages: a trunk of teachers and students engaged in giving and receiving pedagogy in the higher branches of study … and regarded every bit a scholastic guild or corporation. Compare "University", Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989, The whole body of teachers and scholars engaged, at a particular place, in giving and receiving instruction in the higher branches of learning; such persons associated together as a society or corporate torso, with definite organization and best-selling powers and privileges (esp. that of conferring degrees), and forming an establishment for the promotion of education in the higher or more of import branches of learning….
16. ^ Malagola, C. (1888), Statuti delle Università e dei Collegi dello Studio Bolognese. Bologna: Zanichelli.
17. ^ ^{a b} Rüegg, West. (2003). "Chapter one: Themes". In De Ridder-Symoens, H. (ed.). A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Printing. pp. 4–34. ISBN0-521-54113-1.
18. ^ Watson, P. (2005), Ideas. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, folio 373
19. ^ "Magna Charta delle Università Europee". .unibo.it. Archived from the original on 15 November 2010. Retrieved 28 May 2010.
20. ^ ^{a b c} Belhachmi, Zakia: "Gender, Education, and Feminist Knowledge in al-Maghrib (North Africa) – 1950–70", Journal of Middle Eastern and North African Intellectual and Cultural Studies, Vol. 2–three, 2003, pp. 55–82 (65):

    The Adjustments of Original Institutions of the Higher Learning: the Madrasah. Significantly, the institutional adjustments of the madrasahs afflicted both the structure and the content of these institutions. In terms of structure, the adjustments were twofold: the reorganization of the available original madaris and the creation of new institutions. This resulted in two different types of Islamic teaching institutions in al-Maghrib. The start type was derived from the fusion of onetime madaris with new universities. For example, Kingdom of morocco transformed Al-Qarawiyin (859 A.D.) into a academy nether the supervision of the ministry of educational activity in 1963.

21. ^ Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): A History of the Academy in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-521-54113-8, pp. 35–76 (35)
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    The Quaraouiyine Mosque, founded in 859, is the most famous mosque of Morocco and attracted continuous investment by Muslim rulers.

27. ^ Lulat, Y. G.-M.: A History Of African Higher Education From Antiquity To The Present: A Critical Synthesis Studies in Higher Instruction, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005, ISBN 978-0-313-32061-3, p. 70:

    Every bit for the nature of its curriculum, information technology was typical of other major madrasahs such as al-Azhar and Al Quaraouiyine, though many of the texts used at the establishment came from Muslim Espana...Al Quaraouiyine began its life as a small mosque constructed in 859 C.E. by means of an endowment bequeathed by a wealthy woman of much piety, Fatima bint Muhammed al-Fahri.

28. ^ Shillington, Kevin: Encyclopedia of African History, Vol. 2, Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005, ISBN 978-one-57958-245-6, p. 1025:

    Higher education has ever been an integral part of Morocco, going dorsum to the ninth century when the Karaouine Mosque was established. The madrasa, known today equally Al Qayrawaniyan University, became part of the country university system in 1947.

    They consider institutions similar al-Qarawiyyin to be higher education colleges of Islamic police force where other subjects were only of secondary importance.
29. ^ Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R.: "Madrasa", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition, Brill, 2010:

    Madrasa, in modern usage, the name of an institution of learning where the Islamic sciences are taught, i.e. a college for higher studies, as opposed to an elementary school of traditional type (kuttab); in medieval usage, essentially a college of police in which the other Islamic sciences, including literary and philosophical ones, were coincident subjects merely.

30. ^ Meri, Josef W. (ed.): Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, A–K, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-96691-seven, p. 457 (entry "madrasa"):

    A madrasa is a college of Islamic law. The madrasa was an educational institution in which Islamic police force (fiqh) was taught co-ordinate to one or more than Sunni rites: Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanafi, or Hanbali. Information technology was supported past an endowment or charitable trust (waqf) that provided for at least one chair for one professor of law, income for other faculty or staff, scholarships for students, and funds for the maintenance of the building. Madrasas contained lodgings for the professor and some of his students. Subjects other than law were oftentimes taught in madrasas, and even Sufi seances were held in them, just there could exist no madrasa without law as technically the major subject.

31. ^ Makdisi, George: "Madrasa and University in the Eye Ages", Studia Islamica, No. 32 (1970), pp. 255–264 (255f.):

    In studying an institution which is strange and remote in point of time, equally is the example of the medieval madrasa, i runs the double run a risk of attributing to information technology characteristics borrowed from one'south own institutions and 1's own times. Thus gratuitous transfers may exist made from one culture to the other, and the time factor may be ignored or dismissed as being without significance. One cannot therefore exist too conscientious in attempting a comparative written report of these two institutions: the madrasa and the university. But in spite of the pitfalls inherent in such a report, albeit sketchy, the results which may exist obtained are well worth the risks involved. In any instance, i cannot avoid making comparisons when certain unwarranted statements accept already been made and seem to be currently accepted without question. The near unwarranted of these statements is the 1 which makes of the "madrasa" a "academy".

32. ^ ^{a b} Lulat, Y. G.-Thou.: A History Of African Higher Education From Antiquity To The Present: A Disquisitional Synthesis, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005, ISBN 978-0-313-32061-3, pp. 154–157
33. ^ Park, Thomas K.; Boum, Aomar: Historical Dictionary of Morocco, 2d ed., Scarecrow Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-8108-5341-6, p. 348

    al-qarawiyin is the oldest university in Morocco. It was founded equally a mosque in Fès in the middle of the ninth century. It has been a destination for students and scholars of Islamic sciences and Arabic studies throughout the history of Morocco. There were also other religious schools like the madras of ibn yusuf and other schools in the sus. This arrangement of bones education called al-ta'lim al-aSil was funded by the sultans of Morocco and many famous traditional families. Afterward independence, al-qarawiyin maintained its reputation, but it seemed important to transform it into a university that would ready graduates for a modern state while maintaining an emphasis on Islamic studies. Hence, al-qarawiyin university was founded in February 1963 and, while the dean's residence was kept in Fès, the new university initially had four colleges located in major regions of the state known for their religious influences and madrasas. These colleges were kuliyat al-shari's in Fès, kuliyat uSul al-din in Tétouan, kuliyat al-lugha al-'arabiya in Marrakech (all founded in 1963), and kuliyat al-shari'a in Ait Melloul virtually Agadir, which was founded in 1979.

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Further reading [edit]

• Aronowitz, Stanley (2000). The Noesis Manufacturing plant: Dismantling the Corporate Academy and Creating True Higher Learning. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN978-0-8070-3122-iii.
• Barrow, Clyde W. (1990). Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Teaching, 1894-1928. Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN978-0-299-12400-vii.
• Diamond, Sigmund (1992). Compromised Campus: The Collaboration of Universities with the Intelligence Community, 1945-1955. New York, NY: Oxford Univ. Printing. ISBN978-0-19-505382-1.
• Pedersen, Olaf (1997). The Starting time Universities: Studium Generale and the Origins of University Teaching in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Printing. ISBN978-0-521-59431-8.
• Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de, ed. (1992). A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Eye Ages. Rüegg, Walter (full general ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Academy Press. ISBN978-0-521-36105-vii.
• Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de, ed. (1996). A History of the Academy in Europe. Vol. two: Universities in Early Modern Europe (1500-1800). Rüegg, Walter (general ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing. ISBN978-0-521-36106-four.
• Rüegg, Walter, ed. (2004). A History of the Academy in Europe. Vol. three: Universities in the Nineteenth and Early on Twentieth Centuries (1800-1945). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-36107-1.
• Segre, Michael (2015). Higher Teaching and the Growth of Knowledge: A Historical Outline of Aims and Tensions. New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-73566-7.

External links [edit]

Wikiversity has learning resource about University

• "Universities". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
• University at Curlie

clerkalme1982.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University

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